What observation by Pavlov led to the development of classical conditioning?
It attempted to explain behavior based on the effects of the environment and learning rather than innate or inherited factors (Gross, 2020). Show
Classical conditioning theory, discovered by Russian physiologist and Nobel prize winner Ivan Pavlov, was central to behaviorism’s success. Pavlovian conditioning, as it was sometimes known, focused on the role of unconscious learning and the process of pairing an automatic, previously unconditioned response with a new, neutral stimulus (Rehman, Mahabadi, Sanvictores, & Rehman, 2020). This article introduces the theory, along with real-life examples, before discussing its strengths and weaknesses. Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees. What Is the Classical Conditioning Theory?Behaviorists focus on the effect of the environment on human and non-human behavior. Their focus is on learning, particularly conditioning, to the exclusion of inherited, innate factors (Gross, 2020). To the behaviorist, observable behavior is considered a response to stimuli (environmental events). In classical conditioning, as opposed to operant conditioning, “the stimulus is seen as triggering a response in a predictable, automatic way” (Gross, 2020). It is often referred to as stimulus and response psychology. Conditioning forms an association between the stimulus and the response. Who was Ivan Pavlov?In 1904, Ivan Pavlov was awarded the prestigious Nobel prize for his work on digestion in dogs. Despite his focus on animal physiology, his research had a profound effect on the study of human psychology. By stumbling across classical conditioning (sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning) by accident, he significantly influenced the field of behaviorism (Gross, 2020; Rehman et al., 2020). Even though Edwin Twitmyer had published related work a year earlier, Pavlov is widely recognized and best known for his thorough work on classical conditioning. While it seems unlikely that experiments on dogs could have such a far-reaching and long-lasting impact on psychology, that changed when Pavlov (1927) noticed he could change how dogs behaved and reacted to food (Rehman et al., 2020). Pavlov’s dog experimentDuring Pavlov’s (1927) experiments into digestion in dogs, he noticed that they typically started to salivate before being given food. Not only that, even seeing the feeding bucket or hearing the lab assistant’s footsteps was enough to initiate a response (Gross, 2020). Such observations led to the study of what we now call classical conditioning and the recognition that a stimulus such as a sound or an image with no particular meaning could pair with another stimulus to produce a response – in this case, salivating (Gross, 2020). How Does It Work? A Model & DiagramAn easier way to understand how classical conditioning works, is with a visual diagram. 3 Stages of classical conditioningBased on his observations, Pavlov learned that new, neutral stimuli could be paired with existing stimuli to produce a response, as follows (modified from Gross, 2020):
The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that results in an automatic, biologically built-in unconditioned response (UCR) – in this case, salivating. Unconditioned refers to the fact that it is not conditional on being paired with anything.
The bell is a conditioned stimulus (CS). Until it is paired, the bell has no effect on the UCR (salivating). It is neutral. “It only produces a response on the condition that it is paired with the [food]” (Gross, 2020, p. 173).
The conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response. And it works, not only with bells but also lights, metronomes, and even geometric shapes. The degree of response can also be varied depending on how the CS is presented. The timing involved in classical conditioning is crucial and typically involves one of the following (Gross, 2020):
The first option, where the CS is presented a half-second before the UCS, usually results in the strongest learning (Gross, 2020). The following diagram represents the three steps involved in classical conditioning: before, during, and after conditioning (modified from Gross, 2020): Stage 1. Before conditioning (or learning) – The bell does not produce salivation. Stage 2. During conditioning – CS (bell) and UCS (food) are paired. Stage 3. After learning – Bell produces salivation. Key Concepts of Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning includes other factors worthy of consideration. The following concepts help clarify some of the additional subtleties in Pavlov’s research and the classical conditioning theory. First and second-order conditioningWhile Pavlov proved it was possible to pair a conditioned stimulus (a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food), known as first-order conditioning, he also found that he could go one stage further (Gross, 2020). Pavlov could subsequently pair the bell or any other stimulus with something unique and previously unseen, such as a black square. After 10 pairings, the dog would begin salivating at the sight of the square even though it had never been paired directly with the food. This indirect association is known as second-order conditioning. Conditioning was beginning to look increasingly complex. However, there were limits. Pavlov (1927) found that dogs could not go beyond third or fourth-order conditioning (Gross, 2020). Generalization and discriminationPavlov also found that even though a researcher may have trained a dog with one particular bell, other bells could still produce the same effect even if they differed in pitch. The spontaneous transfer of conditioned response is known as generalization (Pavlov, 1927). However, the further away the new stimulus got from the original, the weaker the conditioned response; eventually, it stopped altogether. The limit to generalization is known as discrimination (Gross, 2020). Pavlov subsequently used discrimination training to teach dogs to differentiate between stimuli of the same type that differed by a single factor, such as pitch (Gross, 2020). ExtinctionOnce conditioned, if the conditioned stimulus continued to sound, but no food appeared, the conditioned response (salivating) reduced until it stopped (Gross, 2020). However, after a short break, the dog’s response spontaneously recovered with no further pairing. Therefore, extinction as it is known, does not remove the original learning; it temporarily suppresses it. ReinforcementThough more relevant to operant conditioning than classical conditioning, reinforcement is an essential aspect of behaviorism and can come in two flavors. Positive reinforcement involves presenting something favorable to encourage or reward behavior, and negative reinforcement “involves the removal or avoidance of some ‘aversive’ (literally ‘painful’) state of affairs” such as an electric shock (Gross, 2020, p. 177). 6 Real-Life Examples of the TheoryWhile more acceptable at the time, much of the research into classical conditioning would now be questionable or unethical. Several such studies provide interesting and insightful findings and are regularly discussed within the literature on the classical conditioning theory, but we do not suggest that they are appropriate or ethical. Early examples of classical conditioning research
In subsequent tests, he presented the dogs with a series of shapes that morphed from an ellipse until almost becoming circular. He found that dogs began to act neurotic, trembling, whining, and defecating. It appears that the dogs did not know how to react, facing an increasingly difficult balance between generalization and discrimination.
Only the last four stimuli scared Albert and were labeled UCS. The others, having no response, were considered neutral or CS. Fear was designated as the UCR. When Albert was 11 months old, the rat (neutral or CS) and the hammer sound (UCS) were presented simultaneously seven times. Because of the new pairing, the previously neutral rat now produced fear in the unfortunate Albert. The deliberately produced phobia also extended to other stimuli, including the rabbit, the dog, and even cotton wool. And while over time, the effect reduced, it was still present to a small degree a month later (Gross, 2020).
However, when Peter ate his lunch, a wire cage containing a rabbit was placed in front of him and brought closer to where he sat each day. After 40 sessions and a series of 17 steps, he could ultimately eat his lunch while stroking the rabbit or have it running free in the room with him. The study provides a possible early research example of systematic desensitization (Gross, 2020). 3 Examples in the classroomTeachers can apply the lessons learned from classical conditioning in the classroom (Cherry, 2019; Shrestha, 2017):
When paired with more challenging activities such as presenting in front of the class, a supportive environment can cause valuable and helpful associations that lead to increased confidence (Cherry, 2019).
Such feelings could also lead to a positive outcome such as motivation for extra studying. This article provides even more classroom examples of classical conditioning. Classical Conditioning vs Operant ConditioningWhile both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are vital concepts in behavioral psychology, they are quite different learning processes (Gross, 2020). Under classical conditioning, Pavlov showed the importance of involuntary, automatic behaviors. A previously neutral stimulus, such as a bell, can be paired with an unconditioned stimulus, such as food, that automatically produces an unconditioned response (salivating). Once the dog is trained, the bell creates the unconditioned response. On the other hand, operant conditioning uses either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease behavior, respectively (Skinner, 1957). Rewarding hard work in class regardless of the results can lead to extra effort and recognition that tests are an opportunity to validate understanding. Similarly, when students are punished for talking in class, the problematic behavior decreases. Operant conditioning, therefore, strengthens or weakens behavior (Skinner, 1957; Gross, 2020). 9 Strengths & Weaknesses of Pavlov’s TheoryThe following strengths and weaknesses apply to the classical conditioning theory and behaviorism as a whole (Kompa, 2020). Strengths
Weakness
While both a strength and a weakness, depending on your motives and ethical stance, “people can use classical conditioning to exploit others for their gain” (Rehman et al., 2020). Resources From PositivePsychology.comWe have many resources that therapists can use with their clients to gain additional insight into their behavior and regain control when it is damaging or unhelpful. Take a look at the following tools below:
A Take-Home MessageDiscovering classical conditioning was a fortunate accident. After all, Pavlov was a physiologist researching digestion in dogs (Rehman et al., 2020). And yet his discovery, sometimes referred to as Pavlov conditioning, significantly affected behaviorism and the broader field of psychology. He recognized that by repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food), he was ultimately able to trigger a conditioned response (salivating). By varying the pairing of the neutral (conditioned) stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, he could even affect the size of the reaction (conditioned response). And when the conditioned stimulus continued in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response ultimately disappeared. Behaviorism assumes that all learning results from interactions with the environment, and therefore, that the environment shapes our behavior. As a theory, it contrasts with modern psychological theory, which recognizes the importance of innate and inherited factors and human agency (Buss, 2016). Classical conditioning undoubtedly has its limitations, but it had a significant effect on psychology in the first half of the 20th century and provided a valuable lens to look at animal and (to a restricted degree) human behavior. We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free. What observation by Pavlov led to the development of classical conditioning as a model of learning quizlet?he developed to produce a classically conditioned response. Pavlov noticed that a dog would salivate when the food was put on its tongue. This was simply a reflex. However, eventually the dog started to salivate simply at the sight of Pavlov.
What did Pavlov's experiment on classical conditioning?According to Pavlov, conditioning does not involve the acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. Thus, he theorized that the CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the reflex response. This explanation is called the stimulus-substitution theory of conditioning.
When did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?During the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who was researching salivation in dogs as a response to being fed. While the dogs were being fed, he used a small test tube to measure the saliva by inserting it into their cheeks.
What is Pavlov's theory of development?Ivan Pavlov Theory: Classical Conditioning
First discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), classical conditioning is a learning process governed by associations between an environmental stimulus and another stimulus which occurs naturally.
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