What 3 factors does the HDI look at when determining the development of a country?

Human development index

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic developed by the United Nations Development Programme, to provide an overall indication of quality of life and opportunity, incorporating human health (life expectancy), education level, and per capita income. Of the 18 countries where Atlantic humpback dolphins may occur and for which a HDI classification exists, 16 are ranked in the lowest 25% of the 189 countries assessed worldwide (Table 1). While the HDI values of them all have increased over the last decade, only Gabon is currently considered to have a high HDI value; 12 countries remain categorized as low HDI.

Low HDI values manifest in several ways upon the conservation and management of Atlantic humpback dolphins. First, they often reflect low per capita income and high levels of human poverty. As a result, artisanal fishing, including widespread reliance on static monofilament gillnets, contributes significantly to food supply and livelihoods. Addressing dolphin bycatch and consumption in the numerous impoverished coastal communities that are heavily dependent on gillnet fishing is a daunting challenge.

Local capacity and expertise on Atlantic humpback dolphins are limited by poor educational opportunities linked to low HDI, resulting in a lack of local scientists, and exacerbated in some cases by the subsequent shift of trained scientists away from conservation and towards more lucrative employment provided by industry. Language barriers present a challenge for international information exchange. French, Portuguese, English, and numerous local languages are variously spoken in the countries where the species occurs. The lack of English language courses in some countries makes it difficult for local scientists to participate optimally in international conservation initiatives, or to contribute to, and benefit from, the scientific literature.

Work on Atlantic humpback dolphins is also restricted by poor infrastructure and low resource availability in many countries. For example, many coastal regions are relatively remote and problematic to access, electricity and fuel are not always reliably available, and resources such as sample freezer storage and field equipment are lacking. An added challenge for international experts conducting specialized dolphin work and training local biologists, is the frequent advice against travel to the region by foreign offices related to the risks associated with civil unrest and outbreaks of infectious diseases such as Ebola and COVID-19.

Basic Human Needs

The Human Development Index (HDI) of the United Nations exhibits four key aspects on the basics of human quality of living: infant mortality, population growth rate, longevity, and (il)literacy[49], p202. Every world citizen can be believed to strive to an HDI of close to one, implying a fulfilling of the basic needs. Figure 3.9, showing both the HDI and the ecological footprint, reveals the desired area to be in [69,70].

As can be expected, the four key aspects also show a strong correlation with the gross national product (GNP), [21], however, to a certain point. Figure 3.10 gives another indication of welfare, in terms of subjective well-being. After a certain point, the increase in the percentage happy and satisfied with life does not substantially increase anymore [71]. As GNP is closely coupled to the carbon intensity, more goods, energy usage, and therefore increased carbon intensity do not imply to add a broader feeling of well-being.

11.4.5 Human development index (HDI)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is an indicator of social standards that consists of three areas: life expectancy, access to education and literacy, and living conditions and income. The index depends on a number of factors based on development, including the ability to perform tasks, such as access to proper nutrition, health, occupation, education, and community participation. The relationship between the HDI and the per capita water resources of Ukraine is shown in Fig. 11.8.

According to research conducted in different countries, the results obtained in accordance with the data of Ukraine have an upward trend with per capita water resources. As a result, the availability of water increases the quality of life, improves the economic situation, and develops relevant indicators.

2.4.1 Can Water Security Ensure Economic Growth?

International development discussions are often characterized by polarized contentions on whether money or policy reform is more crucial for progress in human development (various authors as cited in HDR, 2006, p. 66). Scholars have already discussed the two possible causal chains, one that runs between economic growth and human development, and the other that runs between human development and economic growth (Ranis, 2004). The causality in the first case occurs when resources from national income are allocated to activities that contribute to human development. Ranis (2004) argued that a low level of economic development would result in a vicious cycle of low levels of human development and a high level of economic development would result in the virtuous cycle of high levels of human development. Whereas in the second case, as indicated by several evidences, better health and nutrition lead to better productivity of the labor force (Behrman, 1993; Cornia and Stewart, 1995). Education opens up new economic opportunities in agriculture (Schultz, 1975; Rosenzweig, 1995), impacts on the nature and growth of exports (Wood, 1994), and results in greater income equality, which in itself results in economic growth (Bourguignon and Morrison, 1990; Psacharopolous et al., 1992; Bourguignon, 1995; Ranis, 2004).

If the stage of economic development determines a country’s water situation rather than the reverse, the variation of human development index, should be explained by variation in per capita GDP, rather than water situation in orders of magnitude. We have used data for 145 countries to examine this closely. The regression shows that per capita GDP explains HDI variations to an extent of 90%. The regression equation was Y = 0.129ln (X)-0.398. But, it is important to remember that HDI already includes per capita income, as one of the subindices.

Therefore, analysis was carried out using decomposed values of HDI, after subtracting the per capita income index, the graphical representation of which is presented in Fig. 2.2. The regression value came down to 0.75 (R2 = 0.75) when the decomposed index, which comprises education index and life expectancy index, was run against per capita GDP. What is more striking is the fact that 21 countries having per capita income below 2000 dollars per annum have medium levels of decomposed index. Again 50 countries having per capita GDP (ppp adjusted) less than 5000 dollars per annum have medium levels of decomposed HDI. Significant improvements in HDI values (0.30–0.9) occur within the small range in per capita GDP. The remarkable improvement in HDI values with minor improvements in economic conditions, and then “plateauing” means that improvement in HDI is determined more by factors other than economic growth. Our contention is that the remarkable variation in HDI of countries belonging to the low-income group can be explained by the quality of governance in these countries, ie, whether good or poor.

Many countries that show high HDI also have good governance systems and practices, and institutional structures to ensure good literacy and public health. For instance, Hungary in eastern Europe; some countries of Latin America, namely, Uruguay, Guatemala, Paraguay, Nicaragua, and Bolivia; and countries of the erstwhile Soviet Union, namely, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Armenia have welfare-oriented policies. They make substantial investments in water, health, and educational infrastructure.2

Incidentally, many countries, which have extremely low HDI, have highly volatile political systems, and ineffective governance and corruption. The investments in building and maintenance of water infrastructure are consequently very poor in these countries (Shah and Kumar, 2008) in spite of huge external aid. Sub-Saharan African countries, namely, Angola, Benin, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Burundi, Niger, Togo, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; and Yemen in the Middle East belong to this category. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest irrigated to rain-fed area ratio of less than 3% (FAO, 2006, Figure 5.2, p. 177), whereas Ethiopia has the lowest water storage of 20 m3/capita in dams (World Bank, 2005). How water security decoupled human development and economic growth in many regions of the world was illustrated in the human development report (HDR, 2006, pp. 30–31).

The public expenditure on health and education is extremely low in these African countries and Yemen when compared to the many other countries which fall under the same economic category (below US $ 5000 per capita per annum). Over and above, the pattern of public spending is more skewed toward the military (source: HDR, 2006, Table 19, pp. 348–351). Besides, access to water supply and sanitation is much higher in the countries which have higher HDI, as compared to those countries which have very low HDI (based on data in HDR, 2006, Table 7, pp. 306–309).

Some of the striking features of these regions are the high incidence of water-related diseases such as malaria and diarrhea, high infant mortality, and high school dropout rate mainly due to lack of access to safe drinking water; and scarcity of irrigation water in rural areas, poor agricultural growth, high food insecurity and malnutrition (source: based on HDR, 2006). Consequently, their HDI is very low.

6 Conclusions

Energy has a determinant influence on the HDI, particularly in the early stages of development, in which the vast majority of the world's people, particularly women and children, are classified. The influence of per capita energy consumption on the HDI begins to decline between 1000 and 3000 kg of oil equivalent (koe) per inhabitant. Thereafter, even with a tripling of energy consumption, the HDI does not increase. Thus, from approximately 1000 koe per capita, the strong positive covariance of energy consumption with HDI starts to diminish. The efficiency of energy use is also important in influencing the relationship between energy and development.

Another aspect of the problem is the mix of supply-side resources that dominate the world's energy scene today. Fossil fuels have a dominating role (81% of supply in OECD countries and 70% in developing countries), although, as a rule, renewables are more significant for low-income populations. However, there are significant advantages to increasing the role of renewable sources since they enhance diversity in energy supply markets, secure long-term sustainable energy supplies, reduce atmospheric emissions (local, regional, and global), create new employment opportunities in rural communities offering possibilities for local manufacturing, and enhance security of supply since they do not require imports that characterize the supply of fossil fuels.

More generally, development, including the generation of jobs, depends on a number of factors in addition to GNP per capita. Furthermore, although an essential ingredient of development, energy is more important with regard to low rather than high incomes.

Appendix Development Indicators

Table 1.3.3. Development Indicators(1)

Table 1.3.4. Development Indicators (2)

A Brief Scenario of Environmental Health

Malaysia is ranked 59 out of 175 countries in the Human Development Index (HDI), with a medium level HDI of 0.79. Based on 2001 data from the MOH, almost 97% of the Malaysian population has access to safe water with approximately 98.5% in urban areas and 93.94% in the rural areas having such access. However, the estimated number of water pollution sources in Malaysia for 2002 were 13,540, where the major sources are sewage treatment plants, agro-based industries, manufacturing industries, and animal farms. Domestic sewage facilities comprised approximately 53% of all sources (7126 sources), followed by manufacturing industries (5, 137, or 38%), pig farms (807 sources or 6%), and other agro-based industries (470 sources or 3%). Of the total number of effluent sources identified, Johor State had the highest number (1675 or 29.9%), followed by Selangor State (1485 or 26.5%). Perak (573 or 10.2%) and Perlis states had the least number (14 or 0.25%). The presence of adequate excreta facilities among households is also high at 93.60%. Almost everyone in the urban areas is connected to piped water, electricity, and waste collection. There is an emergency response system in Malaysia to deal with emergencies such as natural disasters, fire, chemical emergencies, and oil spills. There are building regulations in place and inspections are being conducted to ensure public safety. The number of informal settlements is decreasing significantly due to government resettlement programs throughout the country. The government has the capacity for monitoring environmental quality parameters for drinking water, noise, and radiation, whereas the private sector has also been monitoring the quality of water resources and ambient air (Table 1).

Table 1. Malaysia’s environmental health data sheet

WHO (2005) Malaysia: Environmental Health Country Profile. Geneva: World Health Organization.

According to 2000 Department of Statistics data, approximately 29% of the Malaysian population used solid or biomass fuels for their cooking and heating needs. Only 11% of the vehicles use diesel, whereas 89% have been using unleaded gasoline. Emissions from mobile and stationary sources are the most significant sources of pollution. Emissions from mobile sources contribute 80.4% of the total load, followed by emissions from stationary sources such as industrial fuel consumption (9%), industrial processes (1.2%), power stations (8.8%), domestic fuel (0.2%), and open burning at solid waste dumping sites (0.4%). In 2001, approximately 6.378 million tons of solid wastes were generated. There are 170 recycling centers throughout the country. In 2003, wastes from hospitals and health care institutions amounted to 5864 tons. The amount of hazardous waste is not available, but there is a large facility in Malaysia for treatment and disposal. Almost half of the hazardous waste comes from the electronics industry.

The top 10 leading causes of mortality are septicemia, heart diseases and diseases of pulmonary circulation, malignant neoplasms, cerebrovascular diseases, accidents, pneumonia, diseases of the digestive system, certain conditions originating in the perinatal period, nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis, and ill-defined conditions. The top 10 leading causes of morbidity are normal delivery (single spontaneous delivery), complication of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium, accident (accidental injury), diseases of the circulatory system, diseases of the respiratory system, certain conditions originating in the perinatal period, diseases of the digestive system, ill-defined conditions (symptoms and signs), diseases of the urinary system, and malignant neoplasms. Approximately 212 cases of pesticide poisoning were reported in 2003. In 1999, the prevalence of underweight preschool children (under the age of 5) was 18%. There were approximately 279,256 reported cases of road traffic accidents in 2002. This is approximately 1093 accidents per 100,000 population and 230 accidents per 10,000 vehicle registration. Injuries reported were 35.9 per 10,000 vehicle registration and resulting deaths were 23.0 per 100,000 population. Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart diseases (3211 cases in 2002), especially among children, have been associated also with environmental factors such as poor living conditions and overcrowding. In 2002, waterborne diseases had been reported: 3601 cases of hepatitis, 365 cases of cholera, and 853 cases of typhoid fever. These are associated with poor drinking water quality and inadequate sanitation. Vector-borne diseases, mainly malaria and dengue fever, have declined through the years but there are still significant cases. In 2001, there were 12,780 cases of malaria and 16,368 cases of dengue.

Malaysia provides leadership in the Southeast Asian region for the healthy cities and healthy settings programs, especially in Kuching, Sarawak. The country initiated and implemented policies for tobacco control as early as 1993 under the Food Act with provision for smoke-free places. Among the Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, Malaysia had the best sustainability index with an Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) score of 54.0 and the Philippines and Vietnam the lowest with scores of 42.3. This ESI was developed by Yale University and Columbia University of the United States of America. The ESI aims to concretize the concept of environmental sustainability, which is defined as “the long-term maintenance of valued environmental resources in an evolving human context.” It builds on 76 datasets and 21 key indicators classified into five components: state of environmental systems, anthropogenic stresses on the environment, aspects of human vulnerability to environmental stresses, social and institutional capacity to affect environmental change, and global leadership toward greater environmental sustainability. Malaysia scored well in three of the five ESI components, namely, environmental systems, human vulnerability to environmental stresses, and social and institutional capacity to respond to environmental stresses. Related to environmental sustainability is the concept of an ecological footprint, which is “a resource management tool that measures how much land and water area a human population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its wastes under prevailing technology.” The ecological footprint supports environmental sustainability by advocating that society’s demand on nature should be in balance with nature’s capacity to meet that demand. Malaysia’s ecological footprint (including food, fiber, timber, and energy footprints) was the highest among the eight countries in the Southeast Asian region where data were available. Malaysia needed 2.4 global hectares per person of itself per year to meet its resource requirements. Its footprint in 2002 was higher than the average of the whole world, middle-income countries, and Asia-Pacific countries. Malaysia’s total biocapacity (or resource supply), however, was higher than its ecological footprint (or resource demand) resulting in a reserve of 0.9 global hectares per person.

Introduction

Canada is a high-income country that enjoys one of the world's highest Human Development Index rankings. The burden of disease is among the lowest in the world even though Canada's ranking, based on health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE), slipped from second place in 1990 to fifth position by 2010 (Murray et al., 2013). The Canadian health system reflects the inherent complexity and diversity of a country covering the second largest landmass in the world (Figure 1). In addition to its original Aboriginal inhabitants and official language communities of French and English, the population is made up of immigrants, many recent, from virtually every part of the globe. Most live in large urban centers that hug the southern border with the United States but vibrant communities, some predating European colonization, are sprinkled throughout the 10 provinces in the south and three territories in the far north.

Canada is a constitutional monarchy based on a parliamentary system in the British tradition and, similar to Australia, it is a federation with two constitutionally recognized orders of government. The federal government is responsible for certain aspects of health and pharmaceutical regulation and safety, data collection, biomedical, clinical and other research funding, and some health services and coverage for designated First Nation and Inuit populations. The second order of government consists of 10 provincial governments mainly responsible for a broad range of health programs and services including the provision of universal coverage for medically necessary hospital and physician services known as Medicare in Canada. In most provinces, health services are organized and delivered by public bodies known as regional health authorities that have been legislatively delegated to provide hospital, long-term and community care as well as improve population health within defined geographical areas.

4.3.2 Income and Welfare

Income and welfare levels are low in Mozambique Channel countries (Fig. 4.6), with a Human Development Index (HDI) less than 0.5 and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita less than $1700. In Madagascar, 92% of the population lives on less than $2 per day, with remote coastal regions being among the poorest. Similarly, education levels and access to health services are likely lower than national averages.

Table 4.3 summarizes family planning indicators in coastal provinces and regions within the NMC. Fertility rates are higher than desired by women, by about one child. One in three to one in five women who would like to space or limit their births are not currently using any contraceptive method, and use of contraceptives varies over an extreme range from as few as 2.9% to almost 40% of women. To steer population growth toward the median to low trends projected by the UN, intensive outreach and increases in access to family planning tools by women, and improved education outcomes in girls and boys, will be necessary.

Table 4.3. Family Planning Indicators—National Averages and Coastal Provinces and Regions in the NMC (USAID, 2016)

Ghana is ranked 135th, out of 177 countries, in the United Nations Development Program's 2007–08 human development index. Malnutrition is high in children under 5 years of age, with 30% stunted in growth. Infant mortality is 64 deaths per 1000 live births. Life expectancy is 57 years. The health status of individuals, groups, and regions in this country is inextricably linked to its development situation, which conditions the biophysical environment and society relations that produce disease ecologies. Malaria, which accounts for over 40% of annual morbidity in Ghana, is an outcome of poor sanitation ecologies. Most of the top 15 reported diseases are diseases of poor sanitation, unsafe drinking water, and polluted outdoor and indoor environments. Promoting health gains in Ghana requires a rigorous and comprehensive explanation of environmental health. This article employs an approach described as environmental health political ecology to explain the health status of Ghana. Its primary thesis is that the ecological characteristics of the biophysical environment (and its objects including pathogens and chemicals) and human society (and its politics of differences in access and control over resources) impinge on each other through networks of relations in produced environments that condition health hazards. The idea of produced environments is based on the notion that stagnant water bodies, poor drinking water quality, poor sanitation, toxic dumps, and polluted air are products of sets of relationships between the biophysical environment and humans. The discussion focuses on the different produced ecologies of health risks in Ghana, the differences in individual, group, and regional vulnerabilities to the health hazards of produced environments arising from the politics of differences in exposures to health risks, and differences in the abilities to manage and control risks.