The schedule of reinforcement that is most appropriate to use in the classroom
It was commonplace for teachers to favor harsh punishment over positive punishment, including using the cane. Show
Now, however, it is recognized that there are more effective ways to teach and to manage classrooms. Techniques such as positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement was introduced by B. F. Skinner in relation to the theory of operant conditioning. It is a form of learning whereby the contingency between a specific behavior and a desirable consequence help increase the likelihood of the behavior recurring. However, there is much more to positive reinforcement, as will be explored in this article. Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our 3 Positive Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values and self-compassion and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your children, students, clients or employees. What is Positive Reinforcement in Teaching and Education?Reinforcement refers to “a stimulus which follows and is contingent upon a behavior and increases the probability of a behavior being repeated” (Smith, 2017, p. 1). The simplest way of conceptualizing positive reinforcement is that something pleasant is ‘added’ when a specific action is performed (Cherry, 2018). Positive reinforcement is an aspect of the construct of Operant Conditioning that was developed by B. F. Skinner (Cherry, 2018). Skinner studied rats, and he found that if the rats consistently pressed a bar which then administered food to the rat, the rat would press the bar more and more in order to get the food reward. Like those rats, if people find a particular behavior rewarding, it is more likely that they will repeat this behavior. When thinking about positive reinforcement in teaching and education, the overarching purpose is to provide an incentive for students to repeat desired behaviors (Revermann, n.d.). In other words, by providing students with a positive outcome when they accomplish achievements or display certain behaviors, students are encouraged to do so again. The timing and delivery of positive reinforcement is the key to effectively promote certain behaviors (Revermann, n.d.). In order for positive reinforcement to be effective, the reinforcement must be appropriate for a student’s age, it should be genuine, and it should be awarded straight after the target behavior (Revermann, n. d.). Perhaps the easiest way to explain how positive reinforcement is used in the classroom, and also to introduce some areas that I will go into in more detail, I will provide an example: Timmy is a grade two student in Ms. Fisher’s class. He fidgets and fiddles, and doesn’t stay in his seat for more than a minute or so at a time. Ms. Fisher decided to use positive reinforcement. Timmy loves stickers, so Ms. Fisher decides that after Timmy sits still for more than a cursory period of time, he will get a sticker. This works well, with Timmy motivated to stay in his seat. As the week progressed, Ms. Fisher deliberately leaves it longer for Timmy to earn the sticker. Timmy begins staying seated for extended periods of time in order to get stickers. There is a lot that will be discussed in relation to this scenario’s details, for now, it suffices to say that Ms. Fisher provided positive reinforcement (stickers) for Timmy sitting in his seat, therefore meaning that he is more likely to do the desired behavior (staying seated). It should be noted that positive reinforcement refers to not only those stimuli that increase the likelihood of a desirable behavior but that cause an increase in ANY behavior (Smith, 2017). For example, a student calls out during class to get attention. When the teacher responds, i.e. pays attention to the disruptive student, this response acts as positive reinforcement – therefore, the probability that the student will call out again increases (Smith, 2017). Without meaning to, by paying attention, the teacher has made it more likely that the behavior will recur. It can therefore be seen how, although simple in concept, positive reinforcement must be used carefully and strategically. Positive reinforcement is occasionally misunderstood by teachers – for example, those teachers who were trained using different techniques (Rumfola, 2017). However, more and more teachers are understanding this evolving and effective form of teaching and classroom management (Rumfola, 2017). Why is Using it in the Classroom Important?The reason positive reinforcement is important in the classroom is that it can be used to effectively change student behavior (Smith, 2017). Using positive reinforcement is also important because it is a universal principle that actually occurs quite naturally in each and every classroom (Maag, 2001). As well as offering the opportunity to increase the display of appropriate behaviors, planning the occurrence of positive reinforcement also means that educators can avoid inadvertently and haphazardly promoting inappropriate behaviors (Maag, 2001). It can be quite difficult to avoid reinforcing misbehavior simply by paying attention to it. It is important to use positive reinforcement in the classroom because a student who experiences positive reinforcement often shows a greater willingness to demonstrate positive behavior (Rumfola, 2017). 5 Examples of Positive Reinforcement in the ClassroomBroadly speaking, examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom fall into five categories:
These are five simple examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom. Keep reading to learn more about how it can be used effectively! The Research on Positive Reinforcement in EducationOne study by Little and Akin-Little (2008) incorporated a survey of positive reinforcement as a component of CRM (classroom management) – it looked at a “number of techniques and procedures that can be followed to help teachers better manage the classroom”. The study included 149 teachers from U.S. school districts who were attending in-service training classes in science education. The sample was made up of 120 women and 29 men, the majority being Caucasian (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). It was found that almost all teachers use verbal praise (such as saying “good job” or “I like the way you do…”) and positive feedback (such as a smile or nod of recognition) to reinforce students for appropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). 73% of teachers used positive touching (e.g. a pat on the back), and 63% sent a positive note home to parents (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). A further 60% used stickers or tokens, and 53% provided students demonstrating appropriate behavior with extra privileges (such as additional computer time) (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). The study by Little and Akin-Little (2008) looks at positive reinforcement as an evidence-based classroom management procedure. It should be noted that, in this study, teachers also reported responding to breaches of rules with a large amount of attention (e.g. verbal reprimands, moving a student closer to the teacher) and that this attention may act as a positive reinforcer for misbehavior. Another study, by Leandra Pintel (2006) examined the effect of positive reinforcement, in the form of rewards, on the achievement of fourteen 3rd Grade students’ end of the week spelling test. The first four weeks of the study looked at test results when there was no use of positive reinforcement in the form of rewards (Pintel, 2006). These results were then compared to grades for the four weeks in which students received rewards every time the student earned a score of 92 or above. The 8-week study showed significant improvement in the students’ grades when they received positive reinforcement in the form of rewards (Pintel, 2006). One functional analysis of a classroom found that destructive behavior was maintained by negative reinforcement, whilst positive behavior was continued through the use of positive reinforcement (Rumfola, 2017). Bernier (2012) also conducted research that showed that students who were reinforced socially in a positive manner were 68% more likely to do or follow what was being encouraged of them (Rumfola, 2017). Another study by Bernier (2012) showed that students pay attention 93% of the time during instruction when the teacher was using positive reinforcement techniques (Rumfola, 2017). A study conducted by Kennedy reported that students with emotional and behavioral difficulties increased their compliance when they were given positive praise for their behavior (Rumfola, 2017). There is definitely a need for more research in the area of positive reinforcement. 7 Benefits and Advantages of Using Positive ReinforcementThe benefits of using positive reinforcement are academic, behavioral, social, and emotional (Rumfola, 2017). Advantages of using positive reinforcement are, as described in Rumfola (2017):
Are There any Negative Effects?So far, it sounds like positive reinforcement is a great tool. Are there any negative effects? In fact, behavior management techniques espousing the principles of positive reinforcement have actually been criticized and rejected by many teachers as well as the general public (Maag, 2001). Kohn (1993) published a book titled “Punished by Rewards” which described the dismissal of techniques centered upon positive reinforcement (Maag, 2001). The book resonated with educators and the wider society. However, according to Maag (2001), Kohn’s arguments do not acknowledge the scientific literature that provides support for behavioral techniques (encompassing positive reinforcement). Axelrod (1996) had a different view. According to Axelrod, techniques that have been developed from positive reinforcement are not popular or accepted by professionals because they require time, provide little reimbursement to educators, they are not consistent with popular developmental psychology theories, are a threat to special interest groups, are somehow not acceptable socially, and are demeaning to humans (Maag, 2001). Education professionals have not accepted Axelrod’s recommendations – evidence suggests that techniques that employ principles of positive reinforcement have had a significant impact on the management of challenging behavior in students (Maag, 2001). It is said by Maag (2001) that punishment has been the preferred option for managing behavior in the classroom due to simplicity in administration, the fact that it is effective for students WITHOUT challenging behaviors as well as those who misbehave, and perhaps most significantly, punishment has resulted from the Judeo-Christian history that has driven much of today’s society. According to Maag (2001), positive reinforcement is commonly ignored and misunderstood. Those who oppose the use of positive reinforcement tend to say that it threatens individuals’ freedom as autonomous human beings. Mistakenly, some have believed that positive reinforcement is externally applied and thus individuals behave in a certain way not because they are internally motivated to do so (Maag, 2001). Rather, it has been erroneously believed that, when positive reinforcement is employed, individuals are being ‘co-erced’. Punishment had also been perceived as an effective way of controlling members of society. Indeed, the use of punishment results in a quick – albeit temporary – suppression of most students’ inappropriate behaviors. In some ways, positive reinforcement has therefore proposed a very different notion of behavior management to teachers’ existing understandings. Furthermore, despite empirical support for positive reinforcement, it is still common for techniques based on positive reinforcement not to be used correctly. It can be easy to ignore students who are behaving well, which is a disadvantage of positive reinforcement. Also, for students with the most challenging behaviors who don’t get much positive attention, adult attention is a powerful reinforcer even if the attention is negative (Maag, 2001). It has also been believed by some educators that positive reinforcement reduces a student’s ability to develop self-direction and crushes the student’s internal motivation. Other negative effects include the fact that all behaviors are followed by certain consequences – the teacher cannot predict which outcome will be reinforced as opposed to ‘punishing’. In other words, a disadvantage of positive reinforcement is that the teacher cannot control what is naturally reinforcing for a student (Maag, 2001). It is also very easy for a teacher to inadvertently positively reinforce inappropriate behavior simply by reacting to the student, and therefore paying attention to the student – increasing the likelihood of the behavior recurring (Maag, 2001). Some teachers feel uncomfortable using reinforcement because they believe that this will mean that students lose sight of the intrinsic motivation to engage in an activity (Parsonson, 2012). However, this is not actually a negative effect of positive reinforcement… children learn the intrinsic value of activities through effective teaching of skills that allow them to access and enjoy the activity! (Parsonson, 2012). Part of the process is for teachers to initially use exposure to extrinsic rewards for developing and displaying relevant skills (Parsonson, 2012). Some ‘food for thought’ when it comes to praise: The following discussion arises from the work of Alfie Kohn (2001) who wrote a somewhat controversial piece about the use of praise (a form of social reinforcement) It raises some interesting points to consider, though certainly approach the arguments with a grain of salt! The use of praise may, in fact, have negative consequences. Let’s look at what Kohn (2001) has suggested. Firstly, he argues that the use of praise may result in children being tentative in their responses because they have come to rely on praise as reassurance – i.e. the praise creates dependence. Praise may also reflect an outcome that benefits the adults – e.g. a child behaves in a way that is more convenient for us – for example, not making a mess. Thus, using praise may be a way for us to get children to act in a way that is in accordance with our wishes. Alfie Kohn suggests that this may even lead to children feeling manipulated – even if they can’t explain why. In other words, use of praise may take advantage of a child’s dependence on adults. The use of praise is a value judgment, and by us providing praise to children, we take from them the opportunity to learn how it feels to successfully achieve something. In other words, by us saying “well done” we are telling the child they should feel pleased. Even though our guidance and evaluations are necessary, especially with toddlers and young children, overuse of praise or any type of positive reinforcement, is not helpful for children’s development. Constant praise may lead to a child depending on feedback to persist with a task. Kohn (2001) shares a quote from Lilian Katz who is an expert on early childhood education: In other words, it has been found that the more a person is rewarded for doing something, the more they will lose interest in whatever it was that they had to do to get the reinforcement in the first place. Kohn also describes a research study which found that children who were frequently praised for being generous actually ended up showing less generosity – in other words, the actions lost their value as something worthwhile in their own right. Rather, the actions are the means to elicit the positive reaction by an adult. It has been found that children who are praised may then struggle to achieve – the praise can create pressure to perform. It may decrease interest in an activity – i.e. the child may lose intrinsic motivation when praise is used. The child may also be less likely to take risks if they’re focused on getting more positive comments. Kohn gives us an example of where praise may inadvertently discourage acts of beneficence – e.g. a child shares their lunch with a friend. The child may have done so to elicit a positive reaction by an adult, or perhaps so the other child has enough to eat. The praise that is given does not regard these different motives, and may even lessen the chance of the more desirable motive – in future, the child may simply fish for more praise. Kohn (2001) even goes so far as to say that praising children’s positive actions as a way of discouraging misbehavior is not a more effective means of achieving lasting change… he suggests working WITH a child to figure out reasons for misbehavior, rather than simply looking for the child to obey. So, this somewhat lengthy discussion opens the door for considering the potential pitfalls of the use of positive reinforcement (and particularly praise). It’s Effect on LearningFirstly, in order to look at the effect of positive reinforcement on learning, a definition of learning. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, mental representations, or associations as a result of experience (Pintel, 2006). So, positive reinforcement creates change as a result of experiencing the rewarding consequences of demonstrating a specific behavior. An example of positive reinforcement shaping learning is that of a child misbehaving in a store. When the child misbehaves, the parent reacts – they may pay attention to the child, or even try to distract them by purchasing a toy (Cherry, 2018). The child learns that, by acting out, they can get their parents’ attention or even get the toy they want! (Cherry, 2018). How would a parent, on the other hand, use a positive parenting approach to teach the child how to behave appropriately? Well, if the parents ignored the misbehavior, and instead wait until the child demonstrates good behavior to reward the child with praise – or even the toy – the child then learns to associate rewards with behaving appropriately (Cherry, 2018). It is always important to consider the type of reinforcer used – depending on the individual and the situation. Learning will be more rapid when there is a short amount of time between the behavior and the presentation of positive reinforcement (Cherry, 2018). Motivation is an important factor to consider in learning (Rumfola, 2017). A student will be more likely to want to learn a skill or behavior if they are motivated by a pleasant consequence (i.e. the positive reinforcement). Positive Reinforcement Versus Negative ReinforcementWhat is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Well, negative reinforcement is not the same thing as punishment, even though this is commonly mistaken. Punishment involves using the delivery of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will recur (Smith, 2017). For example, if someone handles a hot oven tray without wearing gloves or mitts, the burn that they will get will result in the person being less likely to handle the tray without gloves in future. Rather, on the other hand, negative reinforcement is the REMOVAL of aversive stimuli in order to INCREASE the likelihood that the behavior is repeated (Smith, 2017). A simple example of this is an alarm clock. The annoying loud buzzing stops when the man turns it off, leading the man to quickly turn it off in future. Positive reinforcement, as explained earlier is the ADDITION of a pleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior. So, the difference between positive and negative reinforcement is the consequence of the target behavior – the addition of a desirable stimulus versus the removal of an aversive stimulus. To demonstrate what negative reinforcement looks like, here is an example: if a student is sent out of the classroom due to disruptive behavior, the teacher has actually been reinforced! The teacher is negatively reinforced for removing the noisy student because this act has removed the unpleasantness of the student’s behavior (Maag, 2001). Negative reinforcement can also allow students to ‘escape’ the task that they are looking for a break from… for example, a student ‘acts out’ leading to the teacher intervening, and the student therefore avoids the task at hand (Rumfola, 2017). Then, furthermore, when the disruptive behavior is negatively reinforced, it can even lead to socially inappropriate behavior of other students who also wish to ‘escape’ a situation (Rumfola, 2017). Positive Reinforcement in Early Childhood EducationPositive reinforcement plays an important role in teaching young children, including toddlers. A critical aspect of using positive reinforcement in early childhood education is to promote and encourage positive social interactions (Rumfola, 2017). It is advisable to get parents involved with a behavior plan that outlines clear, positively stated behavior (Rumfola, 2017). It is crucial that teachers and parents continuously reinforce positive behavior and to talk appropriately to children about what is expected of them (Rumfola, 2017). In all education settings, but especially education in early childhood, it is important that the role models in the child’s life have a shared understanding of expectations. Even very young children can learn to behave differently if appropriate and desired behaviors are demonstrated (Parsonson, 2012). In young children, positive reinforcement can be used as a behavior modification technique (Morin, 2018). It can also be used to support the learning of prosocial behavior – e.g. sharing, following directions, and taking turns. Young children can be taught not to misbehave – i.e. to prevent hitting or breaking rules (Morin, 2018). Positive reinforcement can also help children learn how to be responsible – e.g. putting away their toys (Morin, 2018). Positive reinforcement is an effective tool to help young children learn desired behaviors, such as:
The ‘New Kids Center’ has provided some reasons to use positive reinforcement for children:
Techniques and Tips for Pre-schoolersHow can we best use positive reinforcement with young children – i.e. pre-schoolers? As evidenced by Kohn (2001), it may be best to avoid excessive use of praise. Instead, ‘say what you saw’ – i.e. use a simple, evaluation-free statement to let the child know that their behavior has been noticed. So, for example, remark: “you put your shoes on all by yourself!” or “you did it!”. This gives children the opportunity to take pride in their achievement. If a longer, more elaborate response is called for, provide feedback rather than judgment. Comment on what you have noticed – e.g. “gosh! That mountain in your picture is huge!”. If the child does something that is kind or generous, rather than simply praising the child, help them understand the effect that their caring has had on the other person. This approach differs from praise, which reflects how YOU feel about the kind behavior (Kohn, 2001). To convey an interest in the child, use questions rather than descriptions (Kohn, 2001). For example, rather than talking about what you were impressed by, ask the child about the process – e.g. ask “what was the most difficult part to draw?” or “what was the most fun thing about doing the puzzle?”. It should be noted, as Kohn (2001) pointed out – not ALL compliments and expressions of our delight and approval are ‘bad’ – we just need to be more mindful of the motives for what we say. Behavior charts, such as the ones that links are provided for later in this article, can be excellent resources to use with pre-schoolers. Providing young children with visual aids to learn can be very effective. For example, draw smiley faces in a chart every time a young child does the target behavior (e.g. puts their toys away). Then, the young child can see their progress and work towards a goal – e.g. 5 smiley faces means Mum will take me for a cookie after pre-school! When working with pre-schoolers in particular, it is also important to remember to encourage effort rather than achievement. Children need to learn that if they do their best, that’s good enough. By encouraging and positively reinforcing effort, children will feel more inclined to learn and persist with challenging tasks. 10 Techniques on How to Best Use Positive Reinforcement With StudentsIt is claimed that positive reinforcement strategies are more effective than punishment for increasing and shaping positive behaviors (Rumfola, 2017). What, then, is the key to successful positive reinforcement? The following ten strategies (from Smith, 2017) can help make the best use of positive reinforcement:
Some other brief suggestions as to other techniques to incorporate into positive reinforcement in the classroom are:
Ideas and Strategies for Classroom ManagementWhat techniques can be used to effectively achieve management of a classroom? For many students, appropriate classroom behavior is maintained via natural reinforcers (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). However, natural reinforcement (such as attention from the teacher, grades, or the self-reinforcement resulting from task completion) may not be sufficient for all students to display appropriate behavior (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). What can be done to manage a classroom, then? One example of an effective classroom management technique is the use of “Interdependent Group Contingencies” (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). This is a technique whereby reinforcers are distributed to every member of the group, contingent on the group meeting specified criteria. This technique has many benefits, such as teachers only requiring one plan for the entire class rather than one for every student (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). The entire class either earns or does not earn the reinforcement, so the teacher does not have to monitor every single student’s behavior and give reinforcers to certain students. Students may even have fun working towards reinforcement rather than avoiding punishment! (Little & Akin-Little, 2008). The following are 20 practical strategies for classroom management suggested by Guido (2018).
The aim of employing these classroom management strategies is to create an orderly – but still engaging and friendly – learning environment and optimize teacher-student and student-student interactions. It is also important to remember that for students to benefit from positive reinforcement in the classroom, they must trust their positive role model (Rumfola, 2017). It is therefore worthwhile developing rapport with students in the class to enhance learning and increase the demonstration of appropriate behavior. 15 Games and ActivitiesThe following are 15 positive reinforcement ideas for kids:
Positive Reinforcement Behavior Chart (PDF)Follow the links below to find free Positive Behavior Charts: In addition, here is a digital PDF Positive Reinforcement Behavior Chart. A List of Positive Reinforcement Words and Phrases to UseWhen using positive reinforcement, it’s all about showing interest in a student. Here are some helpful words and phrases to include:
Recommended Scholarly and Journal ArticlesAlthough there is not plenty of papers out there on positive reinforcement in the classroom, nonetheless the following are interesting:
A Take-Home MessageIt is clear from this article that there is much more to positive reinforcement than first meets the eye. Hopefully, you have learned about the benefits and advantages of using positive reinforcement in the classroom, but also developed an understanding of the limitations and potential pitfalls to its use. Perhaps one thing that I hope you learned from this article is that for the most effective outcomes of using positive reinforcement in the classroom is to avoid empty, excessive praise (e.g. saying “good job!” every time a student displays appropriate behavior) and rather, pay attention to effort and provide statements of feedback and observations. Do you have classroom experience? Have you seen positive reinforcement in action? I would be interested in hearing from you! Or, alternatively, do you use positive reinforcement in your work with clients? Is it effective? How do you avoid inadvertently reinforcing negative behavior? Let’s explore this topic further together! We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our 3 Positive Psychology Exercises for free. Which schedule of reinforcement is best for learning?Continuous reinforcement schedules are most effective when trying to teach a new behavior. These schedule denote a pattern in which every narrowly defined response is followed by a narrowly defined consequence.
Which type of schedule of reinforcement is more commonly used?A continuous schedule of reinforcement is often the best in teaching a new behavior. Once the response has been learned, intermittent reinforcement can be used to strengthen the learning.
What are the 4 types of reinforcement schedules?Combinations of these four descriptors yield four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio and variable-interval.
What are the 3 schedules of reinforcement?Schedules of Reinforcement. Interval Schedule. Interval schedules require a minimum amount of time that must pass between successive reinforced responses (e.g. 5 minutes). ... . Ratio Schedule. Ratio schedule require a certain number of operant responses (e.g., 10 responses) to produce the next reinforcer. ... . Extinction.. |