Early Modern Political Theory I |
Positions A basic overview of the broad spectrum of political positions for the period: Divine Right of Kings - Jacques-Benigne Bossuet [1627-1704] reinforced medieval notions of kingship in his theory of the Divine Right of Kings, a theory which argued that certain kings ruled because they were chosen by God to do so and that these kings were accountable to no person except God. Not only did God bestow power on certain monarchs [and he argued that his king, Louis XIV of France , was one such monarch], but the bestowal of this power legitimated autocracy [rule by one person]. The king ruled by virtue of God's authority; therefore he should be obeyed in all things. No group, whether they be nobles, or a parliament, or the people in the street, have a right to participate in this rule; to question or oppose the monarch was to rebel against God's purpose. This doctrine of absolutism would follow a tortured course through the eighteenth century culminating in the French Revolution of 1789-1792 and the beheading of Louis XVI, the king of France . [taken from //www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/DIVRIGHT.HTM] Enlightenment Despotism - [also known as benevolent despotism or enlightened absolutism] is a term used to describe the actions of absolute rulers who were influenced by the Enlightenment. The main Enlightenment-era proponent of this system was Voltaire, who regularly corresponded with several of the rulers of this time. Enlightened monarchs were rulers who distinguished themselves from traditional monarchs in the way they governed. Specifically, enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied them to their territories. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education. Enlightened despots' beliefs about royal power were often similar to those of absolute monarchs, in that many believed that they had the right to govern by birth and generally refused to grant constitutions, seeing even the most pro-monarchy ones as being an inherent check on their power. [taken from //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightened_despot] Constitutional Monarchy - A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a king or queen reigns with limits to their power along with a governing body [i.e. Parliament], giving rise to the modern adage "the Queen reigns but does not rule". A constitutional monarchy was able to form in England across different periods of history for a complex combination of reasons: sometimes due to a lack of strong leadership, and at other times due to strong leaders short of funding, who needed to raise money to prosecute wars, and needed to address public grievances to ensure this money was forthcoming. Historically, the English had not believed in the "Divine Right of Kings": ever since Magna Carta in 1215, the monarchy had been regarded as a contractual political instrument. In the 17th Century, abuse of power by the Stuart dynasty, and their attempts to import the doctrine of "Divine Right" from Scotland , caused the English to question the royal authority and revive earlier safeguards against executive power. [taken from //www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/ABSOLUTE.HTM and //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy] Oligarchy - Oligarchy is a form of government where most or all political power effectively rests with a small segment of society [typically the most powerful, whether by wealth, family, military strength, or political influence]. The word oligarchy is from the Greek words for "few" and "rule" Some political theorists have argued that all governments are inevitably oligarchies no matter the supposed political system. Oligarchies are often controlled by a few powerful families whose children are raised and mentored to be heirs of the power of the oligarchy, often at some sort of expense to those governed. In contrast to aristocracy ["government by the 'best'"], this power may not always be exercised openly, the oligarchs preferring to remain "the power behind the throne", exerting control through economic means. Although Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the rich, for which the exact term is plutocracy, oligarchy is not always a rule by wealth, as oligarchs can simply be a privileged group. The notion of an oligarchy of virtue, modeled on the ideal of the Roman Republic, was especially important among 18th-century aristocratic circles, such as that of Richard Boyle, Lord Burlington. [taken from //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy] Republicanism - Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic. The term "republic" has been defined in many different ways, but it most often refers to a state in which sovereignty is invested in the people, rather than in a hereditary elite. Republicanism is therefore opposed to monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy and dictatorship - though these distinctions can be somewhat vague, as constitutional monarchies share many republican ideals and a great number of dictatorships have called themselves republics. More broadly, "republic" can refer to any state that is governed in accordance with a written constitution and laws, regardless of their actual content. In this view, republicanism means advocacy of the rule of law; it emphasizes civic duty and civic virtue and strongly opposes corruption [the use of public office for private profit]. [taken from //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism] Democracy - [literally "rule by the people", from the Greek demos, "people," and kratos, "rule"] Term originating in ancient Greece to designate a government where the people share in directing the activities of the state, as distinct from governments controlled by a single class, select group, or autocrat. The definition of democracy has been expanded, however, to describe a philosophy that insists on the right and the capacity of a people, acting either directly or through representatives, to control their institutions for their own purposes. Such a philosophy places a high value on the equality of individuals and would free people as far as possible from restraints not self-imposed. It insists that necessary restraints be imposed only by the consent of the majority and that they conform to the principle of equality. [taken from //education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/democrac and //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy] Anarchy - Anarchy is the anarchist society, the stateless society of free people. Anarchism is the name of a political philosophy, or a generic term for a group of more-or-less related political philosophies, derived from the Greek an-archos ["without archons" or "without rulers"]. Thus, "anarchism," in its most general semantic meaning, is the belief that all forms of rulership are undesirable and should be abolished. William Godwin [1756-1836] represented one of the foremost radical proponents of this in the 18th century. Although anarchists are unified in the rejection of the state, they differ about economic arrangements and possible rules that would prevail in a stateless society. On this issue anarchists differ widely, ranging from advocates of complete common ownership and distribution according to need, to supporters of private property and free market competition. The word "anarchy", as most anarchists use it, does not imply chaos, nihilism, anomie or the total absence of rules, but rather an anti-authoritarian society that is based on voluntary association of free individuals in autonomous communities, operating on principles of mutual aid and self-governance. [taken from //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchy] Theorists The following represent some of the more important theorists in the 17th and 18th century before the French Revolution. [We will examine the debate surrounding the French Revolution later in the semester.]
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan [1651] Key Principles:
John Locke, The Second Treatise of Civil Government [ca. 1680/1688] Key Principles:
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Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws [1748]
Montesquieu was a political realist and by temperament, a conservative. He intends his political theory to provide a way of assessing the strengths and weaknesses of various governments, feeling that no one system is a perfect ideal, but that each has its potential positives and negatives. He examines four possible systems:
Overarching Principle | Where Power Resides | Motivation | Decline | |
Republic | Virtue | People | Self-restraint of the people | Anarchy or Oppression |
Monarchy | Honor | Monarch and laws | Self-interest of the monarch | Despotism |
Aristocracy | Moderation | A few families | Prerogatives of the nobles | Arbitrary Power |
Despotism | Fear | Ruler�s arbitrary whims | Contempt of life | Collapse |
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract [1762] Key Principles:
Thomas Paine, Common Sense [1776] Key Principles:
In particular, Paine argues that the British Constitution, while good for its time, is infected with two forms of real tyranny: monarchial in the king and aristocratic in the House of Lords. The House of Commons does not function as a true check on the other two powers. James Madison, Federalist No. 10, 51 [1787-1788] Key Principles:
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